BRICS Membership Perspectives for Argentina and Paraguay Multilateral Avenues for Engagement with China
Engagement with China in the 21st Century
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.69895/bxehfy91Keywords:
Argentina, Paraguay, China, Foreign Policy, BRICSAbstract
This paper examines the prospects of Argentina and Paraguay joining BRICS within the current multipolar world order. Both countries, traditionally raw-material exporters, face structural limitations derived from their semi-peripheral status but also encounter opportunities to diversify alliances. Argentina’s trajectory reveals oscillations between pragmatism and ideology: selective engagement under Menem and Macri, a stronger South-South orientation during the Kirchner administrations, and outright rejection under President Milei. Paraguay, by contrast, embodies strategic conservatism through its longstanding recognition of Taiwan, which generates significant economic and geopolitical costs by excluding China and blocking its access to BRICS. The paper concludes that while Argentina must overcome ideological inconsistency to take advantage of BRICS opportunities, Paraguay faces a critical dilemma: redefine its loyalty to Taiwan or resign itself to structural disadvantages in an evolving global order.
References
Abdenur, A. (2020). Beyond triangulation: Latin America–China–India relations. In G. Gardini & M. T. Ribeiro (Eds.), Latin America in a new global order (pp. 87–105). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429319490-7.
Agenzia Nova. (2024, April 19). “BRICS, Paraguay warns: Impossible to access, we have no relations with China.” https://www.agenzianova.com/en/news/brics-paraguay-warns-impossible-to-access-we-have-no-relations-with-china.
Amorim. C. (2010). Brazilian foreign policy under President Lula (2003-2010). Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, 53, 214–240. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-73292010000300013.
Antony, S. (2023). Diversification of BRICS: Emerging Economic and Geopolitical Shift. Strategic Analysis, 47(6), 565–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2024.2311475.
BRICS Brasil. (2025, June 13). Vietnam joins BRICS as a Partner Country. https://brics.br/en/news/vietnam-joins-brics-as-a-partner-country.
Cardozo, G. A. (2007). China y Argentina en la política bilateral, 1989-2006. Observatorio de la Economía y la Sociedad China, 1. https://www.eumed.net/rev/china/01/gac-01.htm.
Casa Rosada. (2018, July 27). “President Macri at 10th BRICS Summit: “We are taking the G20 presidency forward with a vision from the South, aiming to transmit the voice of a whole region.” https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/international/latest-news/46026-president-macri-at-10th-brics-summit-we-are-taking-the-g20-presidency-forward-with-a-vision-from-the-south-aiming-to-transmit-the-voice-of-a-whole-region.
Corigliano, F. (2018). Flexibilidad en un mundo incierto: creencias, espacios y lineamientos de la política exterior del gobierno de Macri al promediar el mandato. Perspectivas Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 3(5), 62–97. https://doi.org/10.35305/prcs.v0i5.215.
Desantis, D., & Elliott, L. (2024, August 22). Paraguay open to China trade deals via Mercosur despite Taiwan ties, Peña says. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/paraguay-open-china-trade-deals-via-mercosur-despite-taiwan-ties-pena-says-2024-08-21/.
Duggan, N., & Lagos, J. C. A. (2025). BRICS and their influence in South America. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003495460.
Escudé, C. (1992). Realismo periférico: fundamentos para la nueva política exterior argentina. Planeta.
Escudé, C. (1999). Argentina y sus alianzas estratégicas. In F. Rojas Aravena (Ed.), Argentina, Brasil y Chile: Integración y seguridad (pp. 75–88). Editorial Nueva Sociedad - FLACSO Chile.
Fabani, O. (2016). An approach to non-traditional partners: The evolution of the ties between Argentina and the Gulf Monarchies during the administrations of Cristina Fernández (2007-2015). Janus, 6(2), 16–33. https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/54713.
Focus Taiwan. (2025, July 13). “Taiwan, Paraguay affirm ties at 68th anniversary of relations.” https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/202507130006.
Fornés, G., & Méndez, A. (2018). The China–Latin America axis: Emerging markets and their role in an increasingly globalised world. Palgrave Macmillan.
Gabriel, G. (2020). China’s and Japan’s international engagement in South America: The case of Paraguay. IDE-JETRO Report. https://www.ide.go.jp/English/Research/Region/LatinAmerica/pdf/2020_paraguay.pdf.
Gardini, G. L. (2021). Geopolitics between neo-extractivism and South–South cooperation: China’s presence in Latin America. In G. L. Gardini (Ed.), External powers in Latin America (pp. 57–75). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003108926-4.
Hogenboom, B., & Baud, M. (2022). China’s economic and political role in Latin America: An overview. CEDLA Report. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18349.41442.
Ishmael, L. (2023, October 23). The New South in a Multipolar World Multi-Alignment or Fence Sitting? Policy Center for the New South. https://www.policycenter.ma/publications/new-south-multipolar-world-multi-alignment-or-fence-sitting.
Jaguaribe, H. (1979). Autonomía periférica y hegemonía céntrica. Estudios Internacionales, 12(46), 91–130. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-3769.1979.16458.
La Nación. (1997, February 9). “Menem se encontrará con un Vietnam que dejó la guerra atrás”. https://www.lanacion.com.ar/politica/menem-se-encontrara-con-un-vietnam-que-dejo-la-guerra-atras-nid63418/.
Lechini, G. T. (2016). Argentina y los impulsos africanos. Voces en el Fénix. https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/60825.
Le Grand Continent. (2023). “Por qué Argentina se une a los BRICS, una conversación con Cecilia Nicolini”. https://legrandcontinent.eu/es/2023/09/04/por-que-argentina-se-une-a-los-brics-una-conversacion-con-cecilia-nicolini/.
León-Manríquez, J. L. (2016). Power Vacuum or Hegemonic Continuity?: The United States, Latin America, and the “Chinese Factor” After the Cold War. World Affairs, 179(3), 59–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0043820017690946.
Li, Y. (2023). Trends, Reasons and Prospects of De-Dollarization (Research Paper No. 181). South Centre. https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/278680.
Luque, J. (2019). Chinese Foreign Direct Investment and Argentina: Unraveling the Path. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 24(4), 605–622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-018-09587-7.
Koch, R. (2020). The Geopolitics of Juan Perón: A New Order for an Imperfect World [Doctoral thesis, USF Tampa]. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/etd/8905.
Maresca, A. (2025). BRICS and De-Dollarization as a Geopolitical Industrial Policy: Implications for Cuba, Venezuela, and Argentina. Revista Política Internacional, 7(3), 306–311.
Maresca, A., & Martínez Cabrera, F. F. (2024). La política exterior del Paraguay frente a la dependencia y al orden internacional multipolar. Política internacional, 4, 66–76. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13856883.
Maresca, A., & Cabrera, F. (2025). The Rationale Behind Conservatism in Foreign Policy: Contemporary Implications for Paraguay and Argentina [Capstone Project, Georgetown University - FLACSO Argentina]. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17361.65124.
MercoPress. (2025, August 29). “Paraguay’s Senate wants to explore shifting from Taipei to Beijing ties.” https://en.mercopress.com/2025/08/29/paraguay-s-senate-wants-to-explore-shifting-from-taipei-to-beijing-ties.
Montoya Rodríguez, A. E. (2024). China in South America: Case study Paraguay. Latin American Policy Journal, 6(1), 55–68. https://lapj.hkspublications.org/china-in-south-america-case-study-paraguay.
Novaković, M. (2021). The Non-Aligned Movement in the 21st century—Structure, topics and role. Medjunarodni Problemi, 73(4), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.2298/MEDJP2104689N.
Pan, L. (2022). The Development and Prospect of Neoliberalism International Relations Theory. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 1, 266–272. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v1i.671.
Papa, M. (2014). BRICS’ Pursuit of Multipolarity: Response in the United States | Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences. Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 7, 363–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-014-0022-2.
Pelaudeix, C. (2023). Mercosur, China, and strategic autonomy: Paraguay’s conundrum. Latin America–Asia Pacific Observatory Report. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32675.53289.
Pesce, M. (2019). Foreign Policy of Carlos Menem and Néstor Kirchner, two different expressions of Peronism [Master’s thesis, University Ca’ Foscari of Venice]. https://unitesi.unive.it/handle/20.500.14247/19106.
Pose-Ferraro, N. (2025). Between Geopolitics and Political Economy: The European Union–Mercosur Negotiation to Form a Trade Agreement. Journal of Common Market Studies, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.13743.
Rigirozzi, P., & Tussie, D. (2012). The rise of post-hegemonic regionalism: The case of Latin America. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137273411.
Rubiolo, M. F., Morero, H. A., & Santillán, G. (2010). La política exterior argentina hacia el sudeste de Asia entre las presidencias de Carlos Menem y Néstor Kirchner desde una mirada constructivista. PORTES, Revista Mexicana de Estudios Sobre La Cuenca Del Pacífico, 3(7), 83–107. https://bicyt.conicet.gov.ar/fichas/produccion/1330648.
Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2025, September 8). “On the meeting at the Russian Foreign Ministry with the Ambassador of Argentina in Moscow.” https://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/news/2045628/.
Sardoni, C., & Wray, L. R. (2007). Fixed and Flexible Exchange Rates and Currency Sovereignty (Working Paper No. 489). The Levy Economics Institute. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.960726.
Reis da Silva, A. L. (2016). O Brasil, a Argentina e os BRICS: Convergências e interesses em perspectiva comparada. Relaciones Internacionales, 25(50), 101–125. https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S2314-27662016000100012&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=pt.
Simonoff, A. (2009). Regularidades de la Política Exterior de Néstor Kirchner. CONfines, 5(10), 71–86. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1870-35692009000200006&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es.
Singham, A., & Shune, S. (1987). The Non-Aligned Movement and World Hegemony. The Black Scholar, 18(2), 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.1987.11412752.
The China Global South Project. (2025, July 10). “When Ideology Meets Inflation, Argentina’s Milei Turns to China.” https://chinaglobalsouth.com/analysis/when-ideology-meets-inflation-argentinas-milei-turns-to-china/.
van Klaveren, A. (1992). Entendiendo las políticas exteriores latinoamericanas: modelo para armar. Estudios Internacionales, 25(98), 169–216. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-3769.1992.15463.
Veney, C. R., & Abidde, S. O. (Eds.). (2024). China and Taiwan in Latin America and the Caribbean: The dual threat of geopolitical and ideological realignments. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27615-0.
Volosyuk, O., & Cremella, P. (2025). China and the countries of the Global South: Economic opportunities and risks. Journal of Global Trade, 12(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1163/27727000-01201005.
Wallerstein, I. (2004). World-systems analysis: An introduction. Duke University Press.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Alberto Maresca, Fabiola Francisca Martinez Cabrera (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
This license does not permit commercial use of the original work or any derivative works. The distribution of these derivative works must be made under a license equal to that governing the original work.